Copyright 1995, 1999 by Donald R. Tveter

http://www.dontveter.com drt@christianliving.net, don@dontveter.com
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Chapter 11
Other Neural Methods

The algorithms in this chapter are methods that either are useful or have some potential for being useful or they are methods that have received a fair amount of attention for other reasons, however none of them has a direct bearing on the progress of the main ideas in the text, thus they can be studied or not studied as the reader desires.

11.1  The Restricted Coulomb Energy Network

A system closely related to the nearest neighbor classifier is the restricted Coulomb energy (RCE) network.1 The name is derived from an analogy with the electrostatic energy function governing the interactions of charged particles. The network works very much like the nearest neighbor algorithm except in order for an unknown point to be classified the same as its nearest neighbor it must be close enough to that neighbor. How close is close enough will vary from point to point. This distance limitation makes the RCE network more conservative than the nearest neighbor algorithm.

To illustrate the RCE learning algorithm we will work with the 12 non-linearly separable points in figure 3.4. The first point to add will be (13,1) and we do so by creating a middle layer unit with one connection to the A answer unit and connections to the two input units where the weights on these latter connections are just the coordinates of the point (13,1) with 13 for the x connection and 1 for the y connection. In addition we will start by assigning a close enough value to this unit of 3, so that if an unknown is within 3 units of this point it will be classified the same as this point, otherwise it will be unclassified. The network and its area of coverage is shown in figure 11.1.

Suppose we now want to add the point, (13,-1) to the network. First we calculate its distance to all its neighbors. Its only neighbor is only 2 units away from (13,1) and since it falls within the area of coverage of the point (13,1) we do not add this point to the network.

In another case we now add the point (-1,-4) to the network. It is not close enough to any other points and so it does not pose any added problems. A middle layer unit is added to store this point and an output layer unit is added to represent the class B. A single connection from the new middle layer unit to the new output unit is added. Its radius of coverage is also 3. The state of the network is now shown in figure 11.2. Adding the point (-2,-2) is more complicated. When it is presented to the network it activates the wrong answer, because it is only 2.236 units away from the point (-1,-4). In this case, a new midlayer unit needs to be created and wired in except its radius of influence must now be just under 2.236, say 2.235, in order to avoid conflict with the point (-1,-4). Also, because (-1,-4) responded to (-2,-2), its radius of influence must be decreased to 2.235. The new network and the division of the pattern space is shown in figure 11.3. There is still a large area between these two points that will be classified as both an A and a B. Further training with a large number of data points would be needed to develop an accurate boundary between the two classes. The division of the space using only the 12 data points is shown in figure 11.4.

RCE networks have the advantage that unknown points that are far from known data points get classified as unknown. For instance, if a network is looking at Social Security checks and one comes by for $1,000,286.23, the network, like a human being can warn that something is wrong because it has never seen a case like this before. On the negative side, unclassified points may result from just a simple gap that occurs between data points that are all of the same class. More sophisticated versions of the RCE network are described in [Reilly 1987] and [Collins 1988].

11.2  Higher Order Networks

Another variation on pattern recognition networks is the so-called higher-order type of network. In the networks we have looked at so far the input to a unit has been in the form of:
a1x1 + a2x2 + ... + anxn
where the polynomial is linear in terms of features. A higher order system includes terms that multiply together features in each term, such as in this quadratic, or second order formula:
a1x1 + a2x2 + a12x1x2
(11.1)
Units that respond to inputs that include terms that are multiplied together are called sigma-pi units. In general, a term could include more than two units multiplied together. Figure 11.5 shows a network representing eq. 11.1. This figure shows a common way of diagramming the connections. Outputs from the input layer merge and are multiplied together and then input to the output unit.

Higher-order networks can also be trained using back-propagation [Rumelhart 1986] but the effect of using higher-order terms for input to a back-propagation network can also be duplicated in ordinary back-propagation networks. For instance in the XOR problem you can just supply a back-propagation network with the data, x1, x2 and x1x2. In this case, it turns out that a two-layer network is sufficient and the network also learns the patterns faster than a three-layer network. The arrangement is shown in figure 11.6.

This approach of using combinations of features obviously means that in large networks there will be a great many more weights in the polynomial but some researchers (for instance Maxwell et.al. [Maxwell 1986]) point out that it is not always necessary to include every possible pair of terms in the polynomial. If there is some information known about how features interact, possibly only a few extra terms need to be added to a linear polynomial and then the presence of these few extra terms can sometimes greatly reduce the training time.

Another important potential aspect of higher-order networks is that it seems as if it will be very convenient to actually implement them using optical technology where the weights are stored in a volume hologram (for instance see Psaltis et.al. [Psaltis 1986, 1987, 1988a, 1988b]). One report indicates that lithium niobate crystals could store over 109 connections per cubic centimeter. Clearly, optical evaluation of networks would be very fast. Optical systems that can learn the weights are being researched.

11.3  Clustering

Most learning algorithms in this book have been of a type that uses supervised learning , training done by a teacher who gives the program the correct answer. In contrast to this, there is another type known as unsupervised learning . In unsupervised learning it is up to the system to try to divide its inputs into different categories, or clusters, without having any answers as to how the points should be classified. There are a great many clustering algorithms that have been devised but in this section we will only look at the simplest of them and in the following section we look at the ART1 program, which is a more complex clustering algorithm. Pattern recognition texts will contain many, many others.

As in supervised learning, the characteristics of a pattern are measured and written down as a vector. Suppose we have the data points as listed and plotted in figure 11.7 and we want a program to divide them up into different clusters, where each point in a cluster is close to the other points in the cluster. People would very likely divide these points into two clusters, once centered around (3,3) and another centered around (8,10). In the clustering algorithm we will give, a prototype point will develop near the center of each cluster. Each prototype point will be close to the average value of the coordinates of each point in the cluster.

To start the algorithm, there are no prototype points, so take the first data point, d1 and set the first prototype point, p1 = d1. Now select a point, di from the data set and find the distance from this point to every prototype point, where you can define distance using any formula you want to. Here, we will just use Euclidean distance. If the closest prototype point is close enough to the data point (closeness is a parameter for the user to select), then put the data point in the same category as this prototype point and also modify the prototype point so that it is slightly closer to the data point. If the closest prototype point is pc and it is close enough to di then change pc as follows:
pc = (1.0 - l) pc + ldi,
where l is some small positive constant much less than 1.0, say 0.2 or 0.1. If the data point di is not close enough to an existing prototype point, create a new prototype point, pnew = di. Keep selecting and processing data points until the number and/or position of the prototype points becomes as stable as you want.

In addition to depending on the values of l and close enough, the order of presentation of the data points can affect the outcome. Cases can be constructed where the prototypes never settle down to stable positions. When more than one pass is made through the data set, a point may end up first in one cluster and later on in another. New clusters may be created in a later pass while old clusters can become unused. A common practice to stabilize the convergence is to slowly decrease l as time goes on.

Some results of using this algorithm with the 12 data points in figure 11.7 are shown in figures 11.8 and 11.9. In figure 11.8 the two clusters that resulted came from taking the maximum distance to be 5.0 with l = 0.2, 0.1 and 0.05 in three passes thru the data set while in figure 11.9, three clusters result when the distance is 4.0.

In addition to being used for machine classification, clustering can be applied separately to each class of a set of patterns used to train a back-propagation network in order to reduce the number of patterns the network has to deal with. The network can then be trained completely using prototype points or the training can simply be started using the prototype points and then finished off using the exact data set. Clustering is also used as the starting point for the LVQ family of classification algorithms.

11.4  ART

ART stands for Adaptive Resonance Theory , a method of doing pattern recognition and learning using architectures in which the architecture can be described by a set of differential equations and where, when a pattern match occurs, the system ``resonates". ART models are thought to be similar in many ways to how the brain operates. The ART models have been developed mainly by Grossberg and Carpenter and there are two main versions of ART models that have been produced. ART I uses input patterns that consist of only 0s and 1s while the newer ART II can handle analog patterns. Here we will only look at ART I. Whereas the models can, and usually are, described in terms of solving a set of differential equations the weights used in the network converge to well defined values that can be easily described by simple formulas, therefore, instead of describing ART I precisely in terms of differential equations we will just use the simple formulas. A complete description of ART I can be found in [Grossberg 1988a] (chapter 6) A simple description of ART I and related algorithms can be found in [Moore 1989]. A description of ART II can be found in [Carpenter 1987a].

The function of the ART I architecture is to look at patterns and either categorize them as belonging to a group of patterns it already knows about or to take a novel pattern and create a new category for it, thus it is another method of clustering data. The most important parts of the architecture are shown in figure 11.10. Each node in the R (for recognition) layer represents a different category that ART can put patterns in. In operation, a pattern is placed on the I (for input) layer and then immediately copied onto the C (for comparison) layer. Between the R and C layers there are weighted connections designed to activate the units in the R layer. We will call the matrix of these bottom-up weights, b. Each of the R layer units are activated by the input pattern in the typical fashion:
Rj =
å
i 
bijCi.
The units on the R layer compete with each other to become the winning unit. If the winning unit is labeled J, then RJ becomes 1 while all the other R layer units are set to 0. Unit J represents a tentative choice as to the category that the input pattern belongs to and now this choice will be compared with the input pattern in more detail.

To make the comparison between the candidate category represented by the unit RJ and the actual input pattern a comparison is made in the C layer. There is an additional set of weighted connections that go from the R layer to the C layer and we will call the matrix of these top-down weights, t. All these weights will be 0 or 1 and they represent the prototype pattern associated with a category. The RJ unit will send activation down its connections to the C layer. Units on the C layer will combine the pattern coming from RJ with the pattern coming from the I layer and will form a new pattern in the C layer. If the pattern formed in C has enough 1 bits in common with the pattern coming from the I layer the input pattern will be accepted as an instance of the category represented by RJ. In particular, if the number of 1 bits in C divided by the number of 1 bits in I is greater than a user chosen parameter, r, the vigilance parameter, then the match is acceptable and the system is said to resonate. When the resonance occurs the top-down and bottom-up weights are modified and the algorithm ends.

However, if the pattern sent down by RJ is not close enough then the reset control becomes active and it strongly inhibits RJ so that it will not become active again during the current search process. Now the pattern I will be copied into C, C will activate a different node in R. This R node will send a pattern down to C and, again, if the pattern coming down from the winning R node is close enough to the pattern coming up from I then the pattern matches. If the match is not close enough the current active R node is strongly inhibited, another R node is selected, etc. If the input pattern does not match any existing node then an unused node will become activated and match the input by default.

To be more specific we will now look at a simple example of how ART handles the 4 patterns of 25 bits each shown in figure 11.11. The initial bottom-up weights, bij, start out with the values:
bij = L
L - 1 + M
where M = 25 and a satisfactory value for L will be 1.05. This makes each bij = approximately 0.042. The initial top-down weights, tij, all start out as 1. The vigilance parameter r will be 0.7.

When the first pattern is input all the R nodes will light up to 0.21. The nodes compete as to which one gets selected as the winner and let us assume node 1 wins. Its pattern, the set of weights from R1 to each Ci, is initially composed of all 1s. Now every location in C that is receiving a 1 from above and a 1 from below becomes 1 while all the other C nodes become 0. Five out of 5 of the 1s from the input pattern are matched, this is greater than 0.7, so resonance occurs and weights in the network are adjusted. The bottom-up weights are changed to:
bi1 = L Ci
L - 1 + |C |
where |C | means the number of 1 bits in C. Therefore, every non-zero weight bi1 becomes approximately 0.21. The top-down weights become:
t1i = Ci,
making each tJi either 1 or 0, an exact copy of the C (and in this case, the I) pattern.

When the second pattern is input node 1 lights up to 1.039604 while the remaining nodes are all approximately 0.38 so node 1 is the winner. Node 1's pattern together with the input from I produce a pattern with only five 1 bits in C. 5/9 is less than 0.7, so node 1 is strongly inhibited by the reset control. Node 2 is selected as the next candidate. It matches 9 out of 9, resonance occurs and the weights are updated as before.

When the third pattern is input R2 has a value of 1.044199 so it is checked first. There are 9 out of 13 matches, a ratio of 0.69 that is less than 0.7, so the search continues. Next node 1 is selected, its value is 1.039604, but only 5 out of 13 matches occur. Finally, node R3 is selected, resonance occurs and the weights are updated.

When the fourth pattern is input, node R3 lights up, there are 13 out of 17 matches, a ratio of 0.76, so the fourth pattern is classified as being in category 3.

If the value for r during the training process had been 0.8 a fourth category would have been created while if the value for r had been 0.2 only one category would have been created. Notice, then, that a low vigilance parameter produces a coarse grouping of patterns and a high vigilance parameter produces a fine degree of discrimination.

In general it may take a number of training passes for a network to learn all the patterns. Any given training pattern may be coded first in one category and later, in another pass, in another category. Once the categories have stabilized any member of the training set will be placed in the correct category on the first try.

11.5  LVQ1

The Learning Vector Quantization algorithm, version 1, (LVQ1) is a nearest neighbor algorithm where some prototype points for each class of pattern are moved around to try to maximize the probability of correctly classifying data. The first step in LVQ1 is to take data from each class and apply a clustering algorithm (such as the one in section 11.3 or possibly a more sophisticated one) to create a set of prototype vectors. Now for a training set data point, ti, find the prototype point, pn that is nearest to it. If pn classifies the point correctly then move pn closer to ti using the formula:
pn = pn + a(ti - pn),
where a is some small value, such as 0.1 and a decreases with time. Otherwise if pn does not classify the point ti correctly then move pn farther away from ti using the formula:
pn = pn - a(ti - pn),
where again a is some small value that decreases with time. Repeat these steps for a large number of training set points and slowly decrease a.

As an example2 we take the same training and testing data used in the DSM test in figure 3.7?. First, 12 prototype points, 7 from class A and 5 from class B, were generated using the 1000 training points and the clustering algorithm in section 11.1 with l = 0.1, 0.05 and 0.025 in three passes and a close enough distance of 5.0. These 12 initial prototype points gave a correct classification of 92.9% on the testing set of 1000 points. Then LVQ1 was applied using a = 0.1, 0.05 and 0.025 in three passes through the algorithm. This improved the classification to 95.4% on the test set.

As noted in section 3.2 the LVQ algorithms are new and so far they have been used less than back-propagation. Geva and Sitte [Geva 1991] show that DSM is better and faster than LVQ1 or back-propagation on some test cases but they note that the LVQ algorithms may be better on problems where the training set contains probabilistic errors or fuzzy class boundaries.

11.6  The Counter-Propagation Networks

The counter propagation networks of Hecht-Nielsen [Hecht-Nielsen 1987], [Hecht-Nielsen 1988] were each designed to be a kind of self-programming look-up table with some ability to interpolate between its table entries. They are therefore useful for doing approximations of real-valued functions. There are two versions of the network, the general version and the feed-forward version. The general version of the network has 5 layers and inputs are made on both the first and fifth layers. Processing flows both up and down and this counter flow of activation in the general version of the network is responsible for the name, counter propagation. We will look at the feed-forward version first and then the general version.

11.6.1  The Feed-Forward Version

The feed-forward version of counter propagation resembles the nearest neighbor and RCE networks. The description we use here comes from [Hecht-Nielsen 1988]. A sample feed-forward counter-propagation network designed to compute sin(x) is shown in figure 11.13. This network has three layers and as with a back-propagation network, each layer can have as many units as necessary. To use a network once it has been trained, a pattern is placed on the input units, this pattern activates the middle or Kohonen layer which then activates the output or Grossberg layer.

Training the network is done in two phases. The goal of the first phase of training is to find a set of weights for the lower portion of the network that correspond to points in space that are highly representative of the training data. This makes this part of the process very similar to simple clustering. In the second phase, the upper level weights are modified to try to give the correct answer. All the weights are started out with some small random values.

In the first phase of training a pattern is placed on the input layer and each unit in the Kohonen layer computes the Euclidean distance from the point it represents to the pattern on the input layer. Whichever of these middle layer units has the smallest value wins and becomes 1, while all the other middle layer units become 0. If we designate the values of the middle layer units as a vector, z, and call the winning unit, i, then zi will be 1 while all the other zj, j ¹ i, units will be 0. Because this unit, i, responded strongly to this particular input and it is therefore kind of naturally suited to recognizing this pattern, the weights leading into it are altered so that the next time the same pattern is presented, unit i will be even closer in terms of distance to this pattern. If we let the input unit values be a vector, x, of n components then the weight, wpi, from an input unit p to unit i is altered according to the formula:
wpi = wpi + a(xp - wpi).
All the weights from input units to the other non-winning middle layer units are not changed. Hecht-Nielsen recommends an initial value for a of around 0.5 to 0.8, which is then lowered to around 0.1 or less as these weights converge to their final values. Training is continued on the lower level weights until the weights stabilize and, again, the higher level weights are not changed in this first phase.

The training of the weights between the second and third layers is similar to the above. Patterns are input and one middle layer unit will become active while all the others stay off. Let the desired values of the output units be the vector, y, of m elements, then the weight, uik from the winning middle layer unit, i, to the kth output unit is altered according to:
uik = uik + b(yk - uik).
The initial value for b is 0.1 and it is gradually decreased. All the other weights from losing middle layer units to output layer units are not changed. Again, training continues until the weights stabilize.

Unfortunately, it is not always easy for the network to find a set of weights that are representative of the data set. The result is that the network may get stuck and therefore be unable to learn some of the input patterns. This is equivalent to a back-propagation network getting stuck in a local minimum. One proposal for dealing with these problems is to add random noise vectors to the training set. Another is to keep track of how often each middle layer unit wins the competition and then a unit that wins too often should be disqualified occasionally and a runner-up unit should be chosen as the winner instead.

After the training stage has been completed, the operation of the network is slightly different. Whereas in training, only one unit in the middle layer was selected as the winner, now, more than one unit can be allowed to partially win. The sum of the values of the winning nodes must total 1.0. With more than one winner in the middle layer each of the winners will contribute to producing an output value so that the output will be a blend of the output features of all the chosen winners. In effect, the network interpolates between the values it was trained on. It is up to the user to find a good way to select and weigh the influence of the middle layer nodes that are closest to the input. One very simple scheme might be the following. Suppose after computing the distances of the input point from each middle layer unit, it turns out that the three closest units had the values:
0.125    0.500    1.000.
The unit with the value 0.125 is closest and its contribution to the output should be the greatest. The unit with value 0.500 is not as close and deserves to make a smaller contribution. The third unit should have an even smaller contribution. Any units with distances greater than 1.000 should not contribute anything. One way to see to it that these far away units do not contribute anything is to set them to extremely large values and then all the following calculations will work nicely and these unit values will not be used. Now let the values of the middle layer units be reset in the following way. First let each of the units take on the value of the inverse of itself. The winners therefore become:
8.000    2.000    1.000
while all the losers will be near 0. Now find the sum of these values and then divide each unit by the sum, to give:
0.73    0.18    0.09.
With the values on the middle layer set, it is straightforward to compute the value of each output unit, yk, as:
yk =
å
j 
ujk zj
Once again, keep in mind that this is just a simple weighing scheme. Much less research has been done with the counter-propagation network than for the back-propagation network. Good advice on how to create the blended outputs is lacking at this time.

11.6.2  The General Version

We now take a look at the general version of the counter propagation network using the description from [Hecht-Nielsen 1987]. In this description, all the inputs are normalized vectors. The network consists of five layers as shown in figure 11.14. Inputs are made in layers 1 and 5. The pattern, x, goes on layer 1 and its answer, y, goes on layer 5. Inputs from both these layers serve to activate the units in the middle layer, layer 3 and their values will be represented by the vector, z. These middle layer units activate units in layers 2 and 4. Layer 2 will produce a y¢ vector that is an approximation for the value of y and layer 4 will produce a vector x¢ that is an approximation for the x value. In operation, you can supply the network with x or y or parts of both x and y and the network will supply the missing parts.

To train the network, you start with small random values for the weights, however, some sets of weights must be unit vectors (see below). When a pair of values, x and y are placed on layers 1 and 5, they activate units in the z layer according to the formula:
zi =
å
j 
uijxj +
å
j 
vijyj,
where the uij are the weights between layer 1 and layer 3 and the vij are the weights between layer 5 and layer 3. The weight vectors, ui and vi, start out as unit vectors and as the training proceeds it can be shown that they remain approximately unit vectors. Now, because x and ui are being dotted together and y and vi are being dotted together, the unit i with the largest value, zi, will be the nearest neighbor. This unit with the largest value will be set to 1 and all the others will be set to 0. As in the feed-forward version, the weights will be modified according to the formulas:
uij = uij + a(xj - uij)

vij = vij + b(yj - vij),
where a and b are small positive constants.

The same weight modification scheme is used to modify the weights used to produce the patterns y¢ and x¢. If we designate the weights from layer 3 to layer 2 as wij, and the weights from layer 3 to layer 4 as tij, then the weights are changed according to:
wij = wij + c(yi - wij)

tij = tij + d(xi - tij),
where c and d are small positive constants less than 1.

After training, the outputs x¢ and y¢ are formed by blending together values from the winning nodes in the z layer, as in the feed-forward version.

11.7  Bidirectional Associative Memories

Bidirectional associative memories (BAMs) come in several different varieties the simplest of which is the Hopfield network that stores single binary patterns. The next more complicated variety stores pairs of memories and it is this variety we will look at in this section. Beyond this variety, however, there are some more complex versions as well, which we will simply mention.

The most common variety of BAM stores pairs of binary associations. There are two sets of units in the BAM, one for each of the pair of patterns. We will call these two sets of units, A and B. They do not have to be the same size. In figure 11.15, we show a BAM network and two pairs of data. The first pair of memories is the letter A and its ASCII code and the second pair is the letter Z and its ASCII code. When a pattern is placed on the A layer, its matching pair will eventually appear on the B layer but it will normally require a few iterations before the pattern stabilizes. Likewise, a pattern placed on the B layer will eventually produce the matching pair on the A layer.

The memories for the BAM are placed in a matrix in a manner virtually identical to the method we described for the Hopfield network. A difference is, however, that instead of coding the patterns as binary (0/1), they are coded as bipolar (-1/1), thus all the 0s must be replaced by -1s. If the A layer bipolar pattern is x and the B layer bipolar pattern x is associated with is called y, and there are k pairs of patterns, then to create the matrix, m, of weights between the A and B layers, the inner product of each pair of bipolar row vectors (x and y) is created and added together:
m =
å
i = 1,k 
xiTyi.
This simple method of learning is again subject to the problem of creating local minimas in which the network can get stuck when it is recalling patterns. If the number of units in the A layer is n and the number of units in the B layer is p, Kosko says that the largest number of pairs a network can reliably store will be less than the minimum of n and p. Experiments by Loos [Loos 1988] suggest that this upper bound on the number of memories that can be stored is much smaller and less than that for Hopfield networks. Loos looks at ways to improve storage ability. In the BAM we describe here all the thresholds are 0 but Haines and Hecht-Nielsen [Haines 1988] suggest that BAMS with non-zero thresholds can store much more information.

Recall of memories can be done several ways. During recall, the pattern placed on either set of units is binary and not bipolar. When a pattern is placed on one layer of the network, the units can update asynchronously according to the following equations:
Ai = ì
ï
ï
ï
ï
í
ï
ï
ï
ï
î
1,
if
å
j 
Bi mij > 0
unchanged,
if
å
j 
Bi mij = 0
0,
if
å
j 
Bi mij < 0

Bj = ì
ï
ï
ï
ï
í
ï
ï
ï
ï
î
1,
if
å
i 
Ai mij > 0
unchanged,
if
å
i 
Ai mij = 0
0,
if
å
i 
Ai mij < 0
These equations assume that the threshold for every unit is 0. In addition to updating asynchronously, the entire layer A or the entire layer B can update at the same time. More than one update of an entire layer may be necessary to completely reproduce the missing pattern, so, if a pattern is placed on A, B is updated, then A, then B, etc., until the patterns stabilize. As in the Hopfield network, there is an energy function associated with the network and it is easy to show that the energy of the system decreases to a minimum and then stops. An analysis by Kosko also shows that if both layers of the BAM update at the same time, it is possible, but unlikely, for the energy of the network to go up.

In the type of BAM we have been describing, units take on the discrete values 0 or 1. Continuous BAMS have units that take on continuous values from 0 to 1 and the equations describing the values of the units are differential equations. In addition, continuous BAMs can use other learning rules, where the weights are gradually altered to form the weight matrix. These BAMs are known as adaptive BAMs (ABAMs). BAMs implemented in optics are possible. For more on BAMs see [Kosko 1987] and [Kosko 1988].

11.8  Chapter 11 References

Carpenter 1987a, Gail Carpenter Stephen and Grossberg, ``ART2: Self-Organization of Stable Category Recognition Codes for Analog Input Patterns", in Proceedings of the IEEE First International Conference on Neural Networks, volume 2 , IEEE Press, 1987.
Carpenter 1987b, Carpenter, Gail and Grossberg, Stephen, ``Invariant Pattern Recognition and Recall By a Self-Organizing ART Architecture in a Nonstationary World", in Proceedings of the IEEE First International Conference on Neural Networks, volume 2 , IEEE Press,
Collins 1988, Collins, Edward and Ghosh, Sushmito and Scofield, Christopher, ``An Application of a Multiple Neural Network Learning System to the Emulation of Mortgage Underwriting Judgments", in IEEE Second International Conference on Neural Networks , IEEE Press, 1988.
Geva 1991, Geva, Shlomo and Sitte, Joaquin, ``Adaptive Nearest Neighbor Pattern Classification", in IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks , Volume 2, Number 3, March 1991.
Grossberg 1988a, Grossberg, Stephen and Carpenter, Gail, ``A Massively Parallel Architecture for a Self-Organizing Neural Pattern Recognition Machine", in Neural Networks and Natural Intelligence , Grossberg (ed.), MIT Press, 1988 (Reprinted from Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing , Volume 37, pages 54-115, Academic Press, 1987).
Haines 1988, Karen Haines and Robert Hecht-Nielsen, Robert, ``A BAM with Increased Information Storage Capacity", in Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Conference on Neural Networking , IEEE Press, 1988.
Hecht-Nielsen 1987, Hecht-Nielsen, Robert, ``Counterpropagation Networks", in Proceedings of the IEEE First International Conference on Neural Networking , Caudill and Butler (eds), IEEE Press, 1987.
Hecht-Nielsen 1988, Robert Hecht-Nielsen, ``Applications of Counterpropagation Networks", in Neural Networks , volume 1, number 2, 1988.
Kosko 1987, Kosko, Bart, ``Competitive Adaptive Bidirectional Associative Memories", in Proceedings of the IEEE First International Conference on Neural Networking , Caudill and Butler (eds.), IEEE Press, 1987.
Kosko 1988, Kosko, Bart, ``Feedback Stability and Unsupervised Learning", in Proceedings of the IEEE Second International Conference on Neural Networks , IEEE Press 1988.
Maxwell 1986, Maxwell, T. and Giles, C.L, and Lee, Y.C. and Chen, H.H. ``Nonlinear Dynamics of Artificial Neural Systems", in Neural Networks for Computing , American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings 151, ed.
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11.9  Exercises


11.1.
Apply the clustering algorithm in section 11.3 to the sports fans data in section 3.7 minus the bits used for the name field. Find out if the algorithm can split the patterns into one category for Cub fans, one category for Mets fans and one category for tennis fans.


11.2.
Find out how many categories ART will create with the patterns shown in figure 11.11 when r = 0.5.


11.3.
Can ART do the XOR problem? Could it be used to do simple integral problems like AMI did? Could it learn to do the Rumelhart and Kawamoto language processing task described in section 10.5?


11.4.
Program ART I and then take the 12 sports fans from section 3.6 minus the name field and determine how ART will classify them with various values of r. In particular, see if for some value of r, the network will put all the Cub fans in one category, all the Mets fans in a second category and all the tennis fans in a third.


11.5.
Try LVQ1 with the data generated in exercise 18? of chapter 3 (or any other data you might like to try it on) and compare the merits of LVQ1 with the DSM algorithm. You will need to experiment with the number of prototype points to see how many are needed to give the best possible classification.


11.6.
Program the feed-forward version of counter-propagation and test it by using it to compute sin(x), given x. Some other problems you might want to try the program on are the animal recognition problem from section 4.3 and exercises 18? and 22? from chapter 3.


Footnotes:

1The RCE network algorithm has been patented by Nestor, Inc., Providence, Rhode Island. Readers are warned that patented algorithms cannot be used in programs without an arrangement with the owners of the patent.

2Again, results vary depending on all the parameters and random values involved.


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